Western Dominance at the Start of the 20th Century

The 20th century began with Western powers like Britain, France, and Germany holding immense sway over global politics, largely through a system known as colonialism. Colonialism refers to the practice of one nation establishing control over another territory, exploiting its resources, and imposing its culture and governance. By 1900, these empires had carved up much of Africa, Asia, and the Americas, creating vast networks of colonies that fueled their economic and military might.

However, as the century progressed, these empires faced growing challenges that eroded their dominance. Two world wars, economic crises, and the rise of independence movements weakened their grip, leading to a dramatic collapse of imperial structures by the century’s end. This decline marked a turning point in history, as newly independent states emerged and the global power balance shifted away from Europe toward a more diverse world.

Internal and External Pressures on Empires

The unraveling of empires was driven by both internal weaknesses and external pressures. Internally, many empires struggled with economic stagnation, political corruption, and social unrest as their populations demanded reform. Externally, they faced resistance from colonized peoples who sought self-determination—the right to govern themselves free from foreign rule.

For example, World War I (1914–1918), a massive conflict involving major European powers, drained imperial resources and exposed their vulnerabilities. The war’s aftermath saw revolutionary movements gain momentum, challenging the old order. Meanwhile, the United States and the Soviet Union, emerging as superpowers after World War II (1939–1945), encouraged decolonization—the process of colonies gaining independence—either to expand their own influence or to weaken European rivals. These combined forces dismantled centuries-old empires, replacing them with dozens of new nations.

A key example is the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I. This vast empire, which had ruled much of the Middle East, North Africa, and Southeast Europe since the 14th century, disintegrated in 1922 following its defeat alongside Germany. Its territories were divided into new states like Turkey, Iraq, and Syria, many under temporary European control known as mandates. This redrawing of borders sparked long-term conflicts and nationalist struggles in the Middle East, illustrating how imperial decline not only ended old regimes but also set the stage for modern political tensions.

Land-Based Empires and Structural Weaknesses

Land-based empires, such as the Ottoman, Russian, and Qing, were sprawling states that controlled vast territories through centralized monarchies and military power, often spanning centuries. Unlike maritime empires that relied on naval strength and overseas colonies (e.g., Britain), these land-based powers expanded over contiguous landmasses, incorporating diverse ethnic and cultural groups.

By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, however, they faced insurmountable challenges. Industrialization—the shift from agrarian to machine-based economies—left them lagging behind Western nations, while nationalism, the idea that people sharing a common culture or language should form independent states, fueled internal dissent. Combined with military defeats and economic crises, these pressures led to their collapse, fundamentally altering the regions they once dominated.

The fall of the Russian Empire had lasting repercussions. The revolution birthed the Soviet Union, which became a global superpower and spread communism—a system where the government controls production and resources—worldwide. Under Lenin, the Soviet Union industrialized rapidly and challenged capitalist nations, influencing revolutionary movements globally.

This created a stark divide: wealthy elites and foreign companies, especially from the United States and Britain, controlled vast tracts of land and resources, while peasants and workers faced poverty and landlessness. The revolution, lasting until 1920, aimed to overthrow this oppressive system and establish a more equitable society, marking one of the first major social upheavals of the 20th century.

Key figures drove the revolution’s course. Francisco Madero challenged Díaz in the 1910 election and was jailed, sparking uprisings led by Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. Zapata demanded land reform under his slogan “Tierra y Libertad” (Land and Liberty), while Villa used guerrilla tactics to fight government forces. The revolution culminated in the 1917 Constitution, which introduced labor rights, land redistribution, and limits on foreign ownership of Mexican resources.

Global Revolutionary Movements and Ideological Change

The early 20th century witnessed a wave of revolutionary movements as oppressed populations worldwide sought to overthrow colonial powers, monarchies, and unjust systems. World War I and its economic fallout weakened imperial powers, creating opportunities for change.

From Mexico to Russia, China to Vietnam, people rebelled against political repression, economic hardship, and foreign domination, often embracing ideologies like communism (government-led equality) or nationalism (self-rule). These movements did not occur in isolation; they inspired one another, forming a global push for justice and sovereignty.

In Russia, the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution established the Soviet Union under Lenin. In China, the 1911 Xinhai Revolution ended the Qing Dynasty, eventually leading to Communist victory in 1949 under Mao Zedong. In Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh’s revolution against French rule culminated in the 1954 defeat of France at Dien Bien Phu, blending nationalism and communism. These upheavals dismantled empires and monarchies, paving the way for a century defined by self-determination and ideological competition.