Growing Anti-Colonial Movements

As imperial powers expanded their influence throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, anti-colonial movements emerged in response to economic exploitation, cultural suppression, and political domination. These movements often drew upon nationalist sentiments, religious traditions, and historical grievances to mobilize resistance against European and imperial rule. Resistance took many forms, including armed rebellions, political movements, and efforts to preserve indigenous traditions in defiance of colonial authority.

One of the key driving forces behind anti-colonial resistance was nationalism, which encouraged people in colonized regions to see themselves as part of a unified national identity rather than as subjects of a foreign empire. Many of these movements sought to restore sovereignty, preserve cultural heritage, and resist economic exploitation. While some rebellions were spontaneous uprisings, others were organized resistance movements with clear leadership and long-term goals. Religious ideologies also played a role, with many indigenous movements incorporating spiritual or religious justifications for their resistance against imperial forces.

One of the earliest large-scale revolts against colonial rule was Túpac Amaru II’s Rebellion (1780–1782) in Peru, where indigenous Andean peoples rose up against Spanish colonial authorities. The rebellion was fueled by high taxes, forced labor policies, and the economic marginalization of indigenous communities. Although Túpac Amaru II and his forces briefly gained control over parts of the Andes, the Spanish suppressed the rebellion with extreme brutality, executing thousands of indigenous fighters and their families. However, the memory of the rebellion lived on and inspired later independence movements in Latin America during the early 19th century.

In West Africa, Samory Touré led an extended military campaign against French forces in the 1880s and 1890s, resisting French expansion into modern-day Mali and Guinea. Touré, a skilled military strategist and leader of the Wassoulou Empire, built a professional army equipped with European firearms and waged a guerrilla war against French colonial forces. Despite his initial success in defending his territory, the French eventually captured Touré in 1898, marking the end of one of the last major African resistance movements against European conquest.

In West Africa’s Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana), Queen Yaa Asantewaa of the Asante Empire led a fierce resistance movement against British colonial forces in 1900. The Yaa Asantewaa War (also called the War of the Golden Stool) erupted after British officials attempted to seize the sacred Golden Stool, a symbol of Asante sovereignty. Yaa Asantewaa rallied Asante warriors to defend their land and resisted British military advances for several months. Although the British eventually captured and exiled her, the war became a symbol of African resistance against imperial domination and inspired later nationalist movements in Ghana.

Rise of New States

As imperial powers expanded their influence in the 19th century, some groups sought to establish their own states on the edges of empires. These newly formed states often arose in response to colonial encroachment, acting as buffer zones or centers of resistance against European domination. Some of these new states emerged through military conquests, while others relied on diplomacy and strategic alliances to secureautonomy. These states played an essential role in shaping resistance movements a nd preserving local cultures in the face of imperial expansion.

One example of an Islamic resistance state was the Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1903) in present-day Nigeria. Founded by Usman dan Fodio, the Sokoto Caliphate emerged from a Fulani-led jihad movement that sought to reform Islam and overthrow corrupt local rulers. The caliphate became one of West Africa’s largest Islamic empires, unifying numerous Hausa and Fulani states under a centralized theocratic government. However, despite its military strength and religious cohesion, the Sokoto Caliphate eventually fell to British colonial forces in the early 20th century, marking the end of one of Africa’s last great independent Islamic states.

In Southern Africa, the Zulu Kingdom (1816–1879), under the leadership of Shaka Zulu, emerged as a powerful state that resisted British and Boer (Dutch settler) expansion. Shaka revolutionized Zulu military tactics, introducing innovative weapons (such as the iklwa spear), new battle formations, and rigorous warrior training. These military strategies enabled the Zulu to defeat rival African states and European forces in multiple conflicts. However, increasing British aggression and a series of wars, particularly the Anglo-Zulu War (1879), led to the eventual defeat and incorporation of the Zulu Kingdom into the British colony of Natal.

Another significant example of a state resisting imperial expansion was the Cherokee Nation in the southeastern United States. Throughout the early 19th century, the Cherokee engaged in legal and political efforts to maintain sovereignty in the face of U.S. expansion. The Cherokee adopted European-stylegovernance, created a written constitution, and even developed their own writing system (Sequoyah’s Cherokee syllabary). However, despite these efforts to assimilate and protect their land, the U.S. government forcibly removed the Cherokee in the 1830s during the Trail of Tears, leading to the deaths of thousands and the loss of their homeland.

In the Balkans, nationalist movements led to the creation of new independent states, particularly as the Ottoman Empire weakened. Inspired by nationalism and self-determination, groups in Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria launched uprisings against Ottoman rule. The Greek War of Independence (1821–1830), supported by European powers like Britain, France, and Russia, resulted in the establishment of an independent Greek state in 1830. Similarly, Serbia gained autonomy in 1817 and full independence in 1878 following prolonged resistance and military efforts against Ottoman forces. These newly independent states reshaped the political landscape of the Balkans and further weakened Ottoman control over Europe.

One of the most well-known indigenous spiritual resistance movements was the Ghost Dance Movement (United States, 1890), which spread among Native American tribes in response to U.S. expansion and cultural suppression. The movement, led by the Paiute prophet Wovoka, promised that through ritualistic dances and spiritual purification, Native Americans would see the return of their ancestors, the disappearance of white settlers, and the restoration of their lands. The U.S. government viewed the movement as a threat to federal authority, culminating in the Wounded Knee Massacre (1890), where U.S. soldiers killed nearly 300 Lakota men, women, and children, effectively ending large-scale indigenous resistance in the Great Plains.

In South Africa, the Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement (1856–1857) was a faith-based response to British colonization. A teenage Xhosa prophet, Nongqawuse, claimed that if the Xhosa people slaughtered their cattle and destroyed their crops, their ancestors would return to drive out the British and restore Xhosa dominance. Many Xhosa followed her prophecy, leading to the mass slaughter of thousands of cattle, which resulted in a devastating famine. British colonial authorities took advantage of the crisis, further subjugating the Xhosa people and consolidating colonial rule over their lands.

In Sudan, the Mahdist Wars (1881–1898) were led by Muhammad Ahmad, a religious leader who declared himself the Mahdi, a prophesied Islamic savior destined to purify Islam and overthrow foreign rulers. The Mahdi’s forces defeated Egyptian and British forces, capturing Khartoum in 1885 and establishing a short-lived Mahdist state in Sudan. However, following Ahmad’s death, his successor struggled to maintain control, and by 1898, Anglo-Egyptian forces reconquered Sudan, crushing the Mahdist movement.

These faith-based revolts highlight the intersection of religion and resistance during the age of imperialism. Whether through spiritual revitalization, prophecies, or jihad, many colonized peoples found hope and unity in religious movements, even as European powers sought to suppress them.